Kerstin Bouma

Prey animals can assess the risks predators present in different ways. For example, direct cues produced by predators can be used, but also signals produced by prey conspecifics that have engaged in non-lethal predator-prey interactions. These non-lethal interactions can thereby affect the physiology, behavior, and survival of prey individuals, and may affect offspring performance through maternal effects. We investigated how timing of exposure to predation-related cues during early development affects offspring behavior after weaning. Females in the laboratory were exposed during pregnancy or lactation to one of three odor treatments: (1) predator odor (PO) originating from their most common predator, the least weasel, (2) odor produced by predator-exposed conspecifics, which we call conspecific alarm cue (CAC), or (3) control odor (C). We monitored postnatal pup growth, and we quantified foraging and exploratory behaviors of 4-week-old pups following exposure of their mothers to each of the three odour treatments. Exposure to odors associated with predation risk during development affected the offspring behavior, but the timing of exposure, i.e., pre- vs. postnatally, had only a weak effect. The two non-control odors led to different behavioral changes: an attraction to CAC and an avoidance of PO. Additionally, pup growth was affected by an interaction between litter size and maternal treatment, again regardless of timing. Pups from the CAC maternal treatment grew faster in larger litters; pups from the PO maternal treatment tended to grow faster in smaller litters. Thus, in rodents, offspring growth and behavior are seemingly influenced differently by the type of predation risk perceived by their mothers.

Attachment between dog and owner should establish that the owner acts as a secure base from which the dog can freely explore and interact with the environment. Insecure attachment may cause problem behaviour and poor welfare, and is possibly prevented by appropriate dog-directed parenting. Recently, we identified three dog-directed parenting styles, which were authoritarian correction oriented (AUN), authoritative training oriented (AUT) and authoritative intrinsic value oriented (AUI). We studied how these styles associate with dog to owner attachment as measured with a Strange Situation Test (SST) protocol with different test episodes. In these episodes the dog was either alone in an unfamiliar room, with a stranger, the owner or both. Dog behaviours were grouped by principal component analysis (PCA). Online questionnaires were used to calculate owner-report based scores for parenting styles and these were related to SST dog behaviour scores, as grouped in the PCA. A preliminary analysis of 35 dog-owner dyads correlated AUT dog-directed parenting to behaviours indicative of secure attachment (N=35, r=0.38, p=0.025), which included dogs exploring more during owner presence. Insecure attachment scores were also derived from PCA, and included behaviours such as vocalisations during owner absence. These scores correlated negatively with AUN parenting (N=35, r=-0.48, p=0.004) and positively with AUI parenting (N=35, r=0.46, p=0.006). Our preliminary findings are in agreement with what is known about the parent-child bond, suggesting that for dogs the authoritarian parenting style is most optimal as it is for children. Though the causality of dog-directed parenting and dog to owner attachment remains to be evidenced. Here we find that dog-directed parenting styles may be a route for facilitating appropriate dog to owner attachment and thereby protects dogs from negative emotional states and impaired welfare.